Astaxanthin in shrimp: Dosage, benefits, and production for successful aquaculture

Shrimp producers know it well: vibrant color and vigorous growth are hallmarks of a healthy and profitable crop. In this context, dietary supplementation with pigments such as astaxanthin emerges as a key strategy not only to intensify the characteristic appealing red-pink color of shrimp but also to enhance their overall well-being and, consequently, their market value. Astaxanthin, a natural carotenoid, is widely recognized and used in the shrimp industry precisely to achieve this desired pigmentation (Honda et al., 2023), improving the quality and prices of shrimp.

This article delves into the multiple effects of astaxanthin on crucial aspects of shrimp health, growth, and quality. We will explore the differences and efficacies between natural and synthetic astaxanthin, advances in determining optimal doses, its impact on the immune system and stress response, and the associated economic and production challenges.

Carotenoid pigments

Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, have attracted considerable attention due to their therapeutic attributes and immeasurable health benefits (Lim et al., 2023), growth, and stress resistance in aquatic animals.

The most common carotenoid pigments include astaxanthin,1 B-carotene, and canthaxanthin. Among them, astaxanthin has proven to be the most predominant pigment in shrimp.

What is astaxanthin and why is it crucial for shrimp?

Astaxanthin is found naturally in certain algae, yeasts, salmon, trout, krill, and, of course, crustaceans like shrimp. Astaxanthin offers a series of benefits to aquaculture species, particularly shrimp, among which we can highlight stress tolerance, disease resistance, growth performance, survival, and improvement of egg quality in fish and crustaceans (Elbahnaswy et al., 2023).

Unlike other carotenoids, astaxanthin is not converted to vitamin A in the shrimp’s body, allowing it to exert its direct functions as a potent antioxidant and pigmenting agent.

Key physiological functions:

• Pigmentation: It is directly responsible for the intense red-pink color in cooked shrimp, a characteristic highly valued by consumers. Shrimp pigmentation is an indicator of quality and freshness. On the other hand, astaxanthin deficiency leads to blue shell syndrome in farmed shrimp (Shuangyong et al., 2022).
• Potent antioxidant: It protects cells from oxidative damage caused by free radicals, which increase in situations of environmental stress or intensive management. This antioxidant action in aquaculture is vital. Yu et al. (2020) reported that dietary astaxanthin can reduce the effects of oxidative stress in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei).
• Immune system enhancement: It stimulates the shrimp’s immune response, making them more resistant to diseases and pathogens. Strengthening shrimp health and their immune system reduces the need for antibiotics. In this regard, Lin et al. (2023) report that incorporating astaxanthin into the shrimp diet increases immunological parameters and resistance against Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection; while Eldessouki et al. (2022) found similar results against V. harveyi.
• Improved odor: Zhang et al. (2023) investigated the effect of three forms of astaxanthin (diester, monoester, and free forms) on the aromatic characteristics and active aromatic compounds (AACs) of dried shrimp products (Litopenaeus vannamei); the study results showed that astaxanthin had a significant effect on the concentration of AACs; however, these effects depend on the form of astaxanthin. Ester astaxanthin had the greatest effect.
• Growth optimization: Astaxanthin supplementation initially increased weight gain and specific growth rate, peaking at a specific dietary level. Mansour et al. (2022) reported that dietary supplementation with natural astaxanthin improved growth, feed utilization, and chemical composition of vannamei shrimp.
• Better fatty acid profile: Dietary astaxanthin altered the shrimp’s fatty acid profile, reducing saturated fat and increasing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), which are beneficial for both shrimp health and human consumers.
• Protection against algal blooms: Song et al. (2024) report that astaxanthin exerts a protective effect for shrimp against microcystin, a compound produced by cyanobacterial blooms that grow in shrimp ponds.
• Improved maturation: Astaxanthin plays a role in shrimp maturation and the quality of eggs and larvae.

The inability of shrimp to synthesize astaxanthin de novo makes its inclusion in the diet essential to ensure optimal development and an attractive commercial presentation.

Natural vs. synthetic astaxanthin: Understanding the differences and their efficacy

A common question among producers is the choice between natural and synthetic astaxanthin. Both have the same active compound but differ in their origin, isomeric structure, and often, their presentation matrix.

Natural astaxanthin

• Sources: Mainly extracted from the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma (now Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous), or by-products of crustacean processing such as krill.
• Structure: Predominantly in esterified form (bound to fatty acids) and with a specific isomeric configuration (mainly 3S, 3’S) which is considered more bioavailable and effective by some studies.
• Advantages: Consumer perception of “natural,” potentially higher biological activity due to its structure and the presence of other beneficial compounds in the extract.
• Disadvantages: Generally higher production costs, which can limit its extensive use despite its benefits. Economic viability and methods for natural astaxanthin production/extraction are areas of intense research to make it more competitive.

Synthetic astaxanthin

• Sources: Chemically produced from petrochemicals.
• Structure: Generally presented as a mixture of isomers (including 3S,3’S; 3R,3’S; 3R,3’R) and in free form (non-esterified).
• Advantages: Lower production cost, greater availability, and stability in some feed formulations.
• Disadvantages: Concerns about sustainability and consumer perception. Although effective, some studies suggest that a higher dose might be required to achieve the same levels of pigmentation or biological effects as natural astaxanthin.

Comparative Efficacy: Research on comparative effectiveness is ongoing. While synthetic astaxanthin has proven effective for pigmentation and other benefits in shrimp nutrition, some studies indicate that natural astaxanthin, due to its esterified form and isomeric configuration, might have a better deposition rate in tissues and superior antioxidant activity in certain species and conditions. The choice often comes down to a cost-benefit analysis and the specific objectives of the producer, including possible certification for organic production where synthetic astaxanthin, although sometimes permitted, is less desirable.

Impact of astaxanthin on shrimp growth, survival, and health

Beyond color, astaxanthin supplementation has profound effects on the productive performance and robustness of shrimp.

Improved shrimp growth

Although there is some controversy and the exact mechanisms are still being elucidated, numerous studies have reported an improvement in shrimp growth rate and feed conversion with astaxanthin supplementation. Zhao et al. (2022) reported that the final body weight (FBW), body weight gain (BWG), and specific growth rate (SGR) of Litopenaeus vannamei shrimp exhibited a dose-dependent increase with astaxanthin.

It is believed that this could be related to its antioxidant role, which reduces the energy cost of oxidative stress, allowing more energy to be allocated to growth. However, the effects of astaxanthin on lipid content in the body and flesh are contradictory and controversial, and the regulatory mechanism on fatty acid composition in fish (and extrapolatable to shrimp) still needs to be clarified.

Increased survival rate

Astaxanthin significantly contributes to shrimp survival, especially under stress conditions (high density, temperature or salinity fluctuations, handling). Its ability to modulate the immune system and protect cells from damage is crucial.

For example, Shen et al. (2024) concluded that a 2% dose of Neoporphyra haitanensis in the diet is a potential nutritional and health regulator for shrimp, improving nutrient utilization, immune response, and intestinal modulation; while Eissa et al. (2025) reported that shrimp fed a diet supplemented with Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) notably reduced mortality rates after a challenge with Fusarium solani, with a decrease from 65.00% in the control group to 35.00% in groups with higher doses of HP.

Strengthening the immune system and stress tolerance

This is one of the most documented benefits. Astaxanthin improves stress tolerance in crustaceans by:

• Increasing the activity of immune cells such as phagocytes.
• Modulating the expression of genes related to the immune response.
• Increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx).
• Protecting cell membranes against oxidative damage. While it is confirmed that astaxanthin enhances immunity, the exact mechanisms of its immunostimulatory effects in shrimp, including cytokine mediation, are not fully understood and require further research.

It has been observed that astaxanthin can positively influence the intestinal microbiota, reducing pathogenic bacteria, although the mode of action by which astaxanthin influences the intestinal bacterial population is unclear and needs further study.

Flesh quality

In addition to color, astaxanthin can influence the texture and stability of shrimp meat during storage, thanks to its antioxidant properties that prevent lipid oxidation. The influence on the fatty acid profile is an active area of research.

Determination of the optimal astaxanthin dose in shrimp

Finding the optimal dose of astaxanthin as a supplement in shrimp feed is fundamental to maximizing benefits without incurring unnecessary costs. This dose is not universal and can vary considerably depending on:

• Shrimp species: Different species (e.g., Penaeus monodon vs. Penaeus vannamei) have different capacities to metabolize and deposit astaxanthin.
• Developmental stage: Needs may differ between larvae, juveniles, and adults.
• Type of astaxanthin: Natural or synthetic, and its specific source. Honda et al. (2023) determined that the E/Z isomer ratio affects astaxanthin accumulation in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), and concluded that Z isomers of astaxanthin have higher bioavailability and/or body accumulation efficiency than (all-E)-astaxanthin in shrimp.
• Culture conditions: Intensity, water quality, stress levels.
• Objective of supplementation: Pigmentation, immune enhancement, growth.
• Composition of the base diet: The presence of other antioxidants or lipids can have an influence.

General Ranges and Considerations: Generally, supplementary doses in shrimp diets range between 25 and 100 mg/kg of feed, although some studies explore higher or lower doses for specific objectives.

• For shrimp pigmentation, doses in the range of 50-100 mg/kg are common.
• For effects on the shrimp immune system and stress tolerance, even lower doses may show benefits, but the response can be dose-dependent.

It is crucial to perform a cost-benefit analysis. While higher doses may result in faster or more intense pigmentation, the economic return must justify the additional expense. Studies highlight that optimal astaxanthin levels can vary significantly and more research is needed to “fully unlock the potential of astaxanthin” in shrimp aquaculture.

Natural astaxanthin

Mansour et al. (2022) worked with shrimp diets supplemented with astaxanthin obtained from Arthrospira platensis NIOF17/003 (GenBank accession number: MW396472) and obtained the best performance with a rate of 2.7%. For their part, Shuangyong et al. (2022) worked with H. pluvialis and reported the best values for carapace pigmentation and nutritional value of vannamei shrimp using a rate of 20 mg kg^-1.

On the other hand, Liu et al. (2022) reported that the red body color of vannamei shrimp significantly improved when hydrolyzed Yarrowia lipolytica yeast was added at an optimal level of 4.64 g/kg.

Synthetic astaxanthin

Through sophisticated analyses, the study by the team of scientists led by Qiang et al. (2023) identified the ideal level of synthetic astaxanthin in the diet to maximize the growth of black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon): 90 mg kg⁻¹. This valuable knowledge allows shrimp producers to adjust their feed formulations for optimal results; however, these results may also vary depending on the synthetic astaxanthin products marketed internationally.

Natural astaxanthin vs. synthetic astaxanthin

There is extensive discussion about which type of astaxanthin is better. In this regard, to provide an answer to this question, Huang et al. (2023) compared the effects of synthetic astaxanthin and natural astaxanthin (Haematococcus pluvialis and Phaffia rhodozyma) on growth, body color, fatty acid composition, and antioxidant capacity of Penaeus monodon shrimp; and concluded the following:

• Synthetic astaxanthin has a better effect on promoting growth, improving color, and n-3 PUFA deposition in shrimp muscle.
• Natural astaxanthin (H. pluvialis) improves resistance to stress generated by transport.

Below is a comparative table based on the research results of Xue et al. (2025):

Comparative table: advantages of synthetic astaxanthin vs. natural sources in Penaeus vannamei.

Likewise, the findings from the research by Xue et al. (2025) suggest that formulating feeds with a mixture of different astaxanthin sources, leveraging the strengths of each, could be the most effective strategy to maximize benefits in P. vannamei farming. Finally, the choice between natural or synthetic astaxanthin will depend on the prices of these products and the shrimp’s assimilation capacity. As a shrimp producer, it is best to consult with your feed supplier about the type of astaxanthin they use and evaluate the results you obtain.

Conclusion

Astaxanthin is much more than a simple pigment; it is a multifunctional additive that can significantly improve shrimp growth, coloration, immune robustness, and stress resistance, positively impacting the profitability of shrimp nutrition in aquaculture. The choice between natural and synthetic sources will depend on a cost-benefit analysis, production objectives, and market demands.

While the benefits are clear, research continues to be vital to:

• Determine optimal astaxanthin doses for different species and conditions with greater precision.
• Thoroughly understand the mechanisms of action at the molecular and physiological levels, especially in lipid metabolism and immune response.
• Develop more economical and sustainable methods for the production and extraction of natural astaxanthin.

By staying informed about the latest advancements and applying well-founded supplementation strategies, shrimp producers can fully harness the potential of astaxanthin to cultivate products of higher quality and commercial value, ensuring a more efficient and sustainable industry.

References

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Milthon Lujan

Editor at the digital magazine AquaHoy. He holds a degree in Aquaculture Biology from the National University of Santa (UNS) and a Master’s degree in Science and Innovation Management from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, with postgraduate diplomas in Business Innovation and Innovation Management. He possesses extensive experience in the aquaculture and fisheries sector, having led the Fisheries Innovation Unit of the National Program for Innovation in Fisheries and Aquaculture (PNIPA). He has served as a senior consultant in technology watch, an innovation project formulator and advisor, and a lecturer at UNS. He is a member of the Peruvian College of Biologists and was recognized by the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in 2016 for his contribution to aquaculture.